Examples of nature-based defence projects are growing rapidly in number, but much better reporting of effectiveness and cost effectiveness is necessary, for better understanding of their viability. Ideally, in future, cost reporting in projects should be consistent and report both unit and total restoration costs. Field measurements and analyses of wave energy, rather than wave height, may provide a better picture of the processes that drive wave reduction at each site [21]. For more information about PLOS Subject Areas, click Colours indicate habitat groups in both panels. There is also a growing interest in developing guidance about habitat restoration for nature-based defences but this has largely been identified based more on case studies than syntheses [12,18,19]. Table 1 summarises the costs, coastal protection benefits, objectives and exposure of fifty-two nature-based defence projects in coral reef, oyster reef, mangrove, and salt-marsh habitats. A replacement cost ratio for each NbD based on the cost of the replacement breakwater, Cstruc and the cost of the NbD, CNbD was then calculated: Reducing the effects of coastal development is critically important; it threatens nearly 25% of the world’s coral reefs, particularly in Southeast Asia, and the Indian and the Atlantic oceans. Many people think that the health of the economy is paramount and that individual and social well-being derives from that. There are multiple definitions, but the version I like best is one that says economic growth, environmental protection, and social justice are all important — and sustainable development is about doing all three. The averages are considered significant (p<0.05) when the error bars do not overlap zero (see S1 Methods). LTIS sets out the challenges of managing flood and coastal erosion risk in the face of: 1. asset deterioration 2. climate change 3. a growing populationThis report describes: 1. future risks 2. future opportunities 3. the implications for long-term investment levelsIn the high climate change scenario and with current effective planning outcomes it’s possible to prevent risk from increasing. In the cost comparisons we look for structures that are equivalent to marshes and mangroves in function–i.e. … Click through the PLOS taxonomy to find articles in your field. The PBL study uses four scenarios to do so. The major economic benefits of sustainable construction are reduced operation and utility costs, reduced maintenance costs, and an overall improvement in the buildings performance and efficiency [ 14 ] . A Cost-Benefit Analysis of the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals. On Balance: The Persistence of Appraisal Optimism in Benefit-Cost Analysis. Field measurements of % wave height reduction are plotted versus non-dimensional engineering parameters: (a) Hi/h in reefs (left, n = 27), red line indicates depth-limiting ratio for wave height, Hi/h = 0.78; (b) B/L in coral reefs (right, n = 34). Fig only shows mangroves and marshes as these were the only habitat types and locations for which project information was found in close proximity to field measurements. Schematic showing general mechanics of wave height reduction through habitats, using the examples of coral reefs, seagrass beds and mangroves. Sustainable development, especially since the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment & Development at Rio de Janeiro, has become an increasingly important theme in local, national and world politics, and increasingly a central theme for the engineering professions around the world.The sustainable development concept Suppliers fear that talking to their price-sensitive business customers about sustainable changes could be seen, at best, as a meaningless distraction when … The authors are very grateful to the three anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments that helped strengthen this paper. wave reduction, as well as location–i.e. 3.Appropriate Distribution of means and resources. For each pair of project and field measurement, the per metre project cost (Cproj_per_m) and width (Bproj) were transferred to the field measurement location and a nature-based defence (NbD) was defined with a unique combination of width (BNbD), cost (CNbD), rate of wave height reduction (rNbD), incoming wave height (HNbD) and water depth (hNbD): Only total project costs and habitat extents were used, given the high variability in the relationship between restoration project costs and sizes (see Methods). Catálogo de Buenas Prácticas de uso del Suelo, Manejo del Paisaje y Construcción en la zona Costera de Quintana Rooopens PDF file. These were used to assess the response of wave height reduction to specific non-dimensional parameters: i) relative wave height Hi/h, where h is the average water depth across the habitat transect; ii) relative width B/L, where L is the average annual deep-water wavelength at the habitat location and; iii) relative vegetation height hv/h in intertidal habitats where hv is the average vegetation height across the transect. Various coastal management strategies are employed, each coming with a number of advantages and disadvantages. The three pillars of sustainable development are embedded in the fundamental rights guaranteed by the Constitution, which lay down the framework for social justice in Kenya. Though seawalls are a common substitute for mangrove and marsh habitats [20,31], these are often located at the shoreline and, in addition to blocking waves, also protect against flooding from high water levels. Water depth is a crucial factor, with both habitats showing an increase in cost effectiveness at higher depths, due to the relatively steep increase in breakwater construction costs. The most effective reefs are at least twice as wide as the wave-length, and located at depths that are at most, half the incoming wave height. Cost reporting by projects is highly variable (see Methods). The world should aim to achieve the 17 Sustainable Development Goals [11] The definition of sustainable development has provided a big step forward. The paper also synthesises information on the benefits of restoration projects for coastal protection. The wave reduction data are all field observations of wave heights through habitats (S2 Table). Sustainable development is the organizing principle for meeting human development goals while simultaneously sustaining the ability of natural systems to provide the natural resources and ecosystem services on which the economy and society depend. These analyses were performed only for coral reef and salt-marsh habitats. The official wording is to "Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development". Local impacts of land-based sources of stress will occur in combination with global and regional stressors, such as climate change, land-use practices, and freshwater inputs, further threatening the survival of coral reef ecosystems. According to an OECD report, a total decarbonization of the sector would be possible by 2035 if the 3 following options are combined: These habitats provide a number of ecosystem services, or benefits, including coastal protection, fish production, recreation and other economic and cultural values [3]. ... Plans are afoot to build huge islands and giant constructions in coastal areas, ... that bring a start-up mentality to urban development. Costs of NbDs and cost curves of alternative breakwater structures plotted versus water depth are plotted for a) mangroves (n = 7) and breakwaters in Vietnam and; b) salt-marshes (n = 6) and breakwaters in Europe/USA. This is not true. Table 1.2 Indicative costs associated with the cost of coastal protection 10 Table 1.3 Key cost considerations for coastal works 11 Table 1.4 Example costs from the Environment Agency Unit Cost Database associated with beach recycling/recharge 13 Table 1.5 Example costs from the Environment Agency Unit Cost Database associated with coastal walls 14 Across all habitats, coral reefs emerge as having the greatest potential for coastal protection: they are highly effective at reducing wave heights and are also exposed to higher, more powerful waves. Reducing your use of raw materials can cut your costs, minimise your waste and lower your waste disposal bills - see how to reduce your business waste to save money . https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0154735.s005. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0154735.g002. One point (circled in red) with very low relative height and very high wave attenuation was excluded as an outlier for the regression analysis (see S1 Methods). length of the habitat transect). These results provide insights on where and how coastal habitats and nature-based defence projects may be viable and cost effective, and also, on the key parameters that should be assessed when designing these projects. habitat. Sustainable Development Goal 14 (Goal 14 or SDG 14) is about "Life below water" and is one of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals established by the United Nations in 2015. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0154735.s008, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0154735.s009, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0154735.s010, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0154735.s011. The literature search did not find any projects within seagrass or kelp beds that met these criteria. Only a few studies–all in marshes, provide information on vegetation heights. To provide a direct comparison of restoration projects with engineering alternatives, the costs of restoration projects were compared to the costs of structures that would achieve the same wave reduction. While there are some indications that mangroves and marshes can offer protection from high water levels (Table 1), we do not find enough evidence on this for a comparison of effectiveness, and as such, focus on their wave reduction function. Yes sustainable development”. No, Is the Subject Area "Seaweed" applicable to this article? The improvements in 2007 cost over £4 million for a relatively short section of wall. In the meta-analyses, seagrass and kelp beds were treated together due to similarities in location and the mechanism by which they reduce wave heights (see Fig 1). This is evidenced by the growing number of analyses and reviews of the effectiveness of habitats as natural defences and increasing funding world-wide for nature-based defences–i.e. In any case, policy decisions on where and how to conserve or restore habitats, rather than focusing on a single service, should consider multiple objectives for best allocation of available resources [36,37]. Department of Ocean Sciences, UC Santa Cruz / The Nature Conservancy, Santa Cruz, California, United States of America, Affiliation Green shipping is the concept of sustainable development applied to the shipping sector, incorporating environmental and social responsibility. construction cost per metre length of coastline–of 1 cubic metre of breakwater was estimated as: Photo © Katie Fuller 2009/Marine Photobank. The benefits and downsides of building into the sea. Insights on the success or failure of projects, and comparisons with hard structures that perform similarly, under the same conditions, are difficult to obtain [20]. Is the Subject Area "Coral reefs" applicable to this article? No, Is the Subject Area "Flooding" applicable to this article? Construction projects (piers, channels, airstrips, dikes, land reclamation, etc. It is important to note that coastal habitats are usually one of several structural, nature-based and non-structural measures for coastal protection [32]. Conceived and designed the experiments: SN MWB JCI. No, Is the Subject Area "Cost-effectiveness analysis" applicable to this article? This research was primarily supported by the by SNAPP: Science for Nature and People Partnership, a collaboration of The Nature Conservancy, the Wildlife Conservation Society and the National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis (NCEAS). Such evaluation typically involves a before-after comparison of the coastal hazard at the site. Therefore, information on restoration costs was combined with data from nearby measurements of wave heights to estimate the wave reduction benefits of each restoration project. [7], Using the rate of reduction and project width the total wave reduction by each NbD was estimated and expressed as a transmission coefficient, Kt–NbD. The assistance and support of Dr. Filippo Ferrario, Laval University, Québec is also gratefully acknowledged. Positives Negatives; Protects the land and when built high enough will also prevent coastal flooding. In coral reefs, wave reduction is influenced by a) reef width (S2 Fig); b) reef depth relative to the wave height and; c) reef width relative to the average wavelength (S3 Fig). Photo © Steve Spring, Palm Beach County Reef Rescue, Marine Photobank. Discover a faster, simpler path to publishing in a high-quality journal. 12, June 2019 Melbourne Sustainable Society Institute (MSSI) strives to inform and stimulate public conversation about key sustainability questions facing our society. Cost-benefit analysis entails measuring results, valuing results, and comparing results with costs, and hence is highly relevant to the results agenda. Little to No sewage treatment was conducted for peer-reviewed literature and grey literature ( e.g results. Council to implement the Act not perform regression analyses ( see S1 )... 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